After the funeral rites of the Kuru grandsire Bhīṣma, Yudhiṣthira was highly upset. At this situation, Kṛṣṇa consoled him and asked him to perform several yajña(s) with many dakṣiṇā(s). Since Yudhiṣṭhira was suffering at heart for the people killed in the battle of Kurukṣetra. To get rid of that guilty feeling, Maharṣi Vyāsa said,– even oif one commits a sin, one can be redeemed from that sin by performing yajña, dāna, tapasyā–
yajñena tapasā caiva dānena ca narādhipa
pūyante naraśārdūla narā duṣkṛtakāriṇaḥ.
After this, the sage said to Yudhiṣṭhira — “perform the Rājasūya yajña, Aśvamedha, Sarvamedha, Naramedha and other yajña. Finally, leaving aside the other yajña(s), Vyāsa asked Yudhiṣṭhira only to perform Aśvamedha yajña, citing the examples of Rāmacandra and Bharata, son of Duṣyanta. He said, the way Rāmacandra, son of Daśaratha, did it, so you also perform Aśvamedha, offering lots of dakṣiṇā, food and wealth, and objects desirable to people. Or, the way your predecessor Bharata performed Aśvamedha yajña, do it likewise–
yajasva vājimedhena vidhivaddakṣiṇāvatā
vahukāmānnavittena rāmo dāśarathiryathā.

For Yudhiṣṭhira in Mahābhārata, the example of Rāmacandra from Rāmāyaṇa reminds one of the situation in Rāmāyaṇa. In Uttarakāṇḍa of Rāmāyaṇ, Rāmacandra called Bharata and Lakṣmaṇa, and expressed his wish to perform Rājasūya yajña. The great-souled Bharata did not like Rājasūya yajña , on the ground that — in this way, there would be unnecessary bloodshed and conflict with many other kings–
pṛthivyāṃ rājavaṃśānāṃ vināśo yatra dṛśyate.

Rāmacandra accepted the logic of Bharata, and did not proceed with the thought of Rājasūa yajña. At the same time, Lakṣmaṇa suggested, “You should perform Aśvamedha yajña instead– this yajña can wipe out all sins–
aśvamedho mahāyajña pāvanaḥ sarvapāpmanām
pāvanastava durdharṣa rochatāṃ raghunandana.
In this context, Lakṣmaṇa cited the example of the Aśvamedha yajña performed by Indra, saying that– after killing Vṛtrāsura, Indra fell under the sin of Brahmahatyā, and he had to escape in darkness. As per the advice of God Viṣṇu, and by the help of Maharṣi(s) and Upādhyaya(s), he performed Aśvamedha yajña and got rid of his sin.

In both the Mahākāvya(s), the reference to Aśvamedha yajña comes in the context of getting redeemed of sins, committed knowingly or unknowingly. Much earlier than Mahābhārata, in the ancient Brāhmaṇ text– Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, and in Śāṅkhāyana Śrautasūtra, the ancient king Pārīkṣita Janamejaya has been mentioned. It is said that Maharṣi Indrota Śaunaka functioned as the priest of this Pārikṣita Janamejaya.

Even if that ̍sin̍ is not committed directly by oneself, it can be an overall guilt-consciousness, and the thought of getting released of that sin, especially, when kings are repentent after a life of long battles, being the cause of so many bloodshed, then there is a necessity of performing Aśvamedha yajña– such a thought comes to their minds, as it appears from the chain of events in Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata. However, going deeper into the narrative of Mahākāvya, we may understand that the actual significance of the yajña lies in its political context. The position a king achieves in the Rājamaṇḍala, is by defeating his neighbouring kings, and receiving revenues from them. Behind this step-by-step establishment of a king, there had been advices of performing certain yajña(s) in the Vedic Brāhmaṇ texts. In Gopatha Brāhmaṇa of Atharvaveda, there is a hierarchical list of twenty one yajña(s)– Vājapeya after Rājasūya, Aśvamedha after Vājapeya, Puruṣamedha after Aśvamedha and Sarvamedha after Puruṣamedha– the last phase of this hierarchical order–

agniṣṭomād rājasūyo rājasūyād vājapeyo

vājapeyād aśvamedhaḥ aśvamedhaḥ aśvamedhāt puruṣamedhaḥ

puruṣamedhāt sarvamedha… te vā yajñakramāḥ.

Though Aśvamedha was basiclly performed after battles, for getting released of ̍sins̍, the purpose of gaining a high political position also became important, as it is evident in both Mahākāvya(s). In Rāmāyaṇa, Bharata was telling Rāmacandra– “Now your fame is well-established, there is no need to destroy other dynasties by performing Rājasūya yajña, everyone is already under your power–

pṛthivī nārhase hantuṃ vaśe hi tava vartate.

In this situation, for an overall establishment, Lakṣmaṇa proposes to Rāma that he should perform Aśvemedha yajñ instead. In Mahābhārata as well, the great battle of Kurukṣetra has been won, and in this situation, Vyāsa himself asks Yudhiṣṭhira to perform Aśvamedha yajña.

So, what is the political significance of Aśvamedha yajña? After completing the Aśvamedha yajña, a king attains his absolute power. An ancient text like Śatapatha Brāhmaṇ says that Aśvamedha is the king of all yajña(s). The term ̍vṛṣbha̍ or ̍ṛṣabha̍ has also been used here , to signify ̍the status of the greatest–
rājā vā eṣ yajñānāṃ yadaśvamedhaḥ.
vṛṣbha eṣa yajñānāṃ yadaśvamedhaḥ.
ṛṣabha eṣa yajñānāṃ yadaśvamedhaḥ

After pronouncing this greatness of Aśvamedha, Taittirīya Brāhmaṇ says that — one who performs Aśvamedha yajña, can bring into submission all the things of the physical world, he holds the reign for controlling all, he contains all–
tasmādaśvamedhayājī sarvāṇi bhūtānyabhibhavati.
…yantāramevainaṃ karoti
…dhartāramevainaṃ karoti.

From the application of another mantra in Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa, it can be said that the high-positioned entitlements given to Aśvamedha yajña are basically entitlements for the king. Along with energy-oriented terms like ̍vibhu̍, ̍prabhu̍, ̍urjasvān̍– when it is said, this Aśvamedha yajña is distinguished among all other yajña(s)– eṣa vai vyāvṛtto nāma yajña– or when it is said that– this Aśvamedha yajña is for self-establishment– one who performs this yajña gets established– it can be understood that ultimate sovereignty and a supreme stability of the kng and the state is determined by the successful performance of Aśvamedha yajña.

In Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, the origin and the beginning of this iajña and its great glory, along with its political significance have been pronounced. On the other hand, the salvaging power of Aśvamedha from great sins like Brahmahatyā. Beginning to talk about Aśvamedha, Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa says that– once the left eye of Prajāpati got so much swollen that it came out of its socket, and in that swollen part, a horse was created–
yad aśvayat tadaśvasya aśvatvam.
The gods, by performing Aśvamedha yajña, restored Prajāpati̍s eye to him. With reference to this, one who performs Aśvamedha yajña, makes the Prajāpati complete, and also completes oneself–
yo̍śvasedhena yajate sarva eva bhavati.

It is to be noted that– ̍by performing Aśvamedha yajña, a king becomes complete, and all in all– sarva eva bhavati– this sentence, on the one hand, suggests the supreme sovereignty of a king, and on the other, this very Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa says, that this Aśvamedha is the remedy for all sins, committed knowingly or unknowingly, the supreme elixir for all ailments, and it even forbids the sin of Brahmahatyā–

sarvasya vā eṣā prāyaścittiḥ sarvasya bheṣajas sarvaṃ va etena pāpmānaṃ devā atarannapi vā etena brahmahatyāmataraṃstarati sarvaṃ pāpmānaṃ tarati brahmahatyāṃ yo̍śvamedhena yajate.

But the political significance of being a sovereign king is greater than the significance of getting released from the sin of Brahmahatyā– that becomes clear in the following statement in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, that the king who performs Aśvamedha can conquer all the sides, all the world, so the king is called yantā, the controller of everybody, and one who contains all–
aśvamedhayājī sarvā diśo̍bhijayati bhuvanaṃ jayati…yantārameveina dhartāraṃ karoti.

From this idea of Śatapatha, we can understand why Lakṣmaṇa brought the context of Indra̍s Brahmahatyā. In the same way, when Yudhiṣṭhira was upset, brooding over the responsibility of mass-slaughter after the battle of Kurukṣetra, Vyāsa adviced him to perform Aśvamedha. However, in both contexts, the political significance of a king̍s attainment of sovereignty was not to be ignored. In case of Yudhiṣṭhira, after the death of Karṇa-Duryodhana, the stability of the kingdom was unquestionable. For Rāma as well, after the death of Rāvaṇa, there was nobody in his rājamaṇḍala to challenge him. Still, he was adviced to perform Aśvamedha. The purpose is to secure that fact that no king was any longer against him. So a horse is sent to wander at will across the kingdoms, and if anybody challenges it, there will be a battle.

It is in this context that a sovereign royalty becomes associated with Aśvamedha yajña. Perhaps that is why in Āpastamva Śrautasūtra it is said that one who is a sovereign king, will perform Aśvamedha, and one who is not a sovereign king, will of course perform it–
rājā sārvabhaumo̍śvamedhena yajeta. apyasārvabhaumaḥ.

Here the term ̍sārvabhauma̍ has not been used in the sense of modern Political science, and the explanation of this royal entitlement is given in Aitareya Brāhmaṇa. Aitareya Brāhmaṇ says– the term ̍sārvabhauma̍ is synnonymous with ̍sāmanta̍; a king whose kingdom is spreaded upto the sea, is a ̍sārvabhauma̍ king, he is ekarāṭ–
ayaṃ sāmantaparyāyī syāt sārvabhaumaḥ
sarvāyuṣaḥ… samudraparyantayā ekarāḍiti.

Here the term ̍sāmanta̍ should not be viewed in the sense of European ̍Feudalism̍, ̍Feudatory̍ or ̍Feudal̍. Many scholars consider that in ancient India, Feudalism did not exist in the way it had been in Europe. According to other scholars, the features of a feudal structure began to become evident since the 4th century AD, and they became prominent by the time of Harṣ. This is the opinion of Ramsharan Sharma, and we have no problem in accepting this opinion,, with some modifications. Sharma says– both in the rock-inscriptions of Aśoka and the Arthaśāstra by Kauṭilya, an independent neighbouring state has been meant by sāmanta. But in this context, it must be remembered that Aitareya Brāhmaṇ is undoubtedly composed before the time of Aśoka, and here for the first time, the term ̍sāmanta; appeared as an epithet for a sovereign king. So it cannot be ̍vassal̍, not even an independent neighbouring state, it refers to a sovereign king, who is ekarāṭ, with nobody around to challenge his power.

While translating Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, Ramendrasundar Trivedī has written– sarvabhauma is upto the end of bhūmi, i.e., the land– sāmantaparyāyī syāt sārvabhaumaḥ. A king who kingdom is spreaded upto the end of the land, upto the sea– is sāmantaparyāyī sārvabhauma.

Even if we consider the meaning of sāmanta as neighbour, here the meaning would be– the king who holds full control over the kingdoms belonging to the sāmanta(s) or neighbours, is a ̍sārvabhauma̍ king. By performing Aśvamedha, one may attain this unquestionable control over the land along with the seas.

Mahābhārata has mentioned the names of some famous kings who had performed Aśvamedha. While describing the lineage of Puru, the ancestor of Pāṇḍava(s) and Kaurava(s), it is said that Matināra, son of Anādhṛṣṭi performed Aśvamedha. But before that, his father Anādhṣṭi has been referred to as ̍ekarāt̍, so it can be assumed that he also performed Aśvamedha–
*anādhṛṣṭirabhūt teṣāṃ vidvānaṃ bhūvi tathaikarāṭ.
*anādhṛṣṭisutasvāsīd rājasūyāśvamedhakṛt
matināra iti khyāto rājā paramadhārmikaḥ.

In Vanaparva of Mahābhārata, we get the information about the Aśvamedha yajñ performed by Nala, son of Vīrasena, from his wife Damayantī, when she was separated from Nala. We also learn that Damayantī̍s father Bhīma, king of Vidarbha also performed Aśvamedha. In Āśvamedhika parva, we have already found the Aśvamedha Yajñ(s) ferformed by Rāma, son of Daśratha and Bharata, son of Duṣyanta. Encouraged by Vyāsa, Yudhiṣṭhira became mentally prepared to perform Aśvamedha, but he also conveyed his financial crisis, saying that– “I know, by performing Aśvamedha, I̍ll be redeemed of all sins, but this yajña requires a large amount of wealth to be given away as honorarium and donations, and my royal treasury is almost empty, Duryodhana has exhausted this world̍s resources in many ways, how can I perform this yajna? Land is to be given away as ̍dakṣiṇā̍, and other kinds of donations are also of great amount–
pṛthivī dakṣiṇā yatra vājimedhe mahākratau.

Vyāsa said, brahmaṇa(s) had left out huge portions of wealth given in a yajña of king Marutta, in one place in Himālaya. Yudhiṣṭhira could bring that wealth and start his yajña.

Some time was spent to bring the hoards of treasure of king Marutta. After that, Vyāsa initiated Yudhiṣṭhira for the yajña on the Pūrṇimā of Caitra. Vyāsa himself, his disciple Paila, and Yājñavalkya were in the arrangement of the whole thing. A healthy and able-bodied aśva (horse), examined and selected by brāhmaṇa(s) well-versed in the knowledge of horses, was sent away, as per instruction of Vyāsa, to travel across the earth, to the end of the sea–
medhyamaśvaṃ parīkṣantāṃ tava yajñarthasiddhaye
tamutsṛja yathāśāstraṃ prṛthivīṃ sāgarāmvarām
sa paryetu yaśo dīptaṃ tava pārthiva vardhayan.

The third Pāṇḍava Arjuna was in charge of the protection of the horse. He accompanied the horse in its journey from north to south. He had been engaged in battles with several kings, and the most interesting part of it was Arjuna̍s battle with his own son, Vabhruvāhana, born of the womb of Citrāṅgadā. Travelling all the kingdoms of all the sides, the horse came back to Hastināpura.

On the Śuklā Dvādaśī of the month of Māgha, in Puṣyānakṣtra-yoga, Yudhiṣṭhira commanded for the arrangements of the actual yajña. Messengers went towards all sides, to invite the kings, though Arjuna had already invited them during his travel. Bhīma got the yajña-place made by experienced Brāhmaṇa(s) and able architects. New houses were built up for the lodging of guests. A yajña-altar, decked with gold and jewels was raised at the centre of the yajña-place.

Keeping aside the description of the guests and the arrangement of hospitality for them, the description of the actual yajña-ritual should be mentioned in brief. In the beginning of the Aśvamedha, Vyāsa told Yudhiṣṭhira– “Let your yajña be known as Ahīna, and since so much of gold will be used in this yajña, it will be known as vahusuvarṇa.

Golden bricks were made for collecting fire, four altars were made–of about eighteen arm-lenghth, and they were shaped as triangular, garuḍākṛti, kuśavyāpta and svarṇapakṣa. The yājaka(s) founded several yūpa(s) for animal-sacrifice– six made of bela-wood. six of khadira wood, two of devadāru, and one of a mucous(vahuvāra) tree, along with a number of golden yūpa(s) as well. Goats, bulls to be used in the yajña were brought to the right place. Three animals were tied to the yūpa(s), and the horse that had completed its travel across countries, was kept especially.

Mahābhārata does not mention in details after killing the horse by strangling (sanjñapana), its different body-parts were cut off, and offered as āhūti. Only giving out indications, it is said, the brāhmaṇa(s) cut off several parts of the horse, according the ciustom, after sacrificing all other animals. Then they made the ̍manasvinī̍ Draupadī sit for three kalā (a measure of time equivalent to more or less four minutes)–
tataḥ saṃśrapya turagaṃ vidhivad yājakasthathā
upaveśayāñcakru statastāṃ drupadātmajām
kalābhistsṛbhī rājan yathāvidhi manasvinīm.

Then, melting the ̍vasā̍ (oily fat) of that dead horse in fire, Yudhiṣṭhira and the other Pāṇḍava(s) smelt it. Sixteen ritvik(s) offered the rest of the horse̍s body parts, as āhūti. Thus the yajña came to its conclusion.Yudhiṣthira gave away the entire earth as dakṣiṇā to the ṛtvik(s). Vyāsa and the other ṛtvik(s), however, returned the earth to him. Yudhiṣṭhiira donated large amounts of gold to the priest. At first Vyāsa, as pepresentative of all other sages and brāhmaṇa(s) accepted the honorarium of gold from Yudhiṣṭhira, and then divided it among hotā, tantradhāraka, brahmā (priest of Atharvaveda) and other ṛtvik(s). The rest of the wealth,  kept in yajña-bhavana were divided among other brāhmaṇa(s). Then Yudhiṣṭhira gave wealth as dāna to the Kṣtriya(s), Vaiśya(s) and Śūdra(s). The Mleccha(s) picked up whatever golden articles, and bits and pieces of gold scattered here and there. At the end of the yajña, Kuntī, mother of the Pāṇḍava(s), paid her respects to her father-in-law, Vedavyāsa, he gave his share of the wealth entirely to Kuntī. Yudhiṣṭhira completed the ritual end-bath called avabhṛtha, and sat in glory, surrounded by the other kings.

In Rāmāyaṇa, the Aśvamedha yajña of Rāmacandra does not descrbe in details the ancient formulae of Aśvamedha. Here, Vibhīṣaṇa Sugrīva and others were invited, the arrangements were huge, donations and honour given to people of all the jāti(s) were of no mean degree, but Rāmacandra̍s Aśvamedha yajña has been covered up in something else. Lakṣaṇa set out with the horse, but the triumphant journey of the horse remains in silence. Sage-poet Vālmīki had been present in the yajña. The two sons of Rmacandra, till then unknown, began to sing Rāmāyaṇa in front of him, and calling Sītā once again,her arrival, and instead of proving her chastity once more, Sīā̍s descent into earth, finally the completion of the yajña with the golden image of Sītā– all these events have covered the maginitude of Aśvamedha yajña. In comparison, the Aśvamedha yajna of Daśaratha, Rāma̍s father, is described with much more pomp and grandeur. And surprisingly, this yajña of Daśaratha is comparable in so many ways with the Aśvamedha of Yudhiṭhira. The measure of the yajña-altaras, and the numbers of yūpa(s) are described in same terms. After the horse was killed, here the queen Kauśalyā severed the horse with three knife-like weapons, and according to the custom, spent one night with the horse. The ṛtvik, hotā, and advaryu of the yajñ also ̍connected̍ the parivṛttā (the vaiśya-wife of the king) and vāvātā (the śūdra wife of the king) with the horse. The matter of the smelling of vasā, melted in fire, is also similar to the description of Mahābhārata.

A detailed description covering the yajña-ritual, which is not given in Mahābhārata, is provided regaring the Aśvamedha performed by Daśaratha. Agniṣṭoma savana on the first day, Ukthya savana on the second day and Atirātra savana on the third day– have been performed, and according to Vedic custom, Jyotiṣṭoma, Āyuṣṭoma, Abhijit, Viśvajit, Atirātra and Āptoryāma– all these have been performed. As in Mahābhārata, here also Daśaratha gives away the earth, won by his own power, as dakṣīṇā to the ṛtvik(s), but they return it and accept an honorarium of jewels, gold, cows and clothes from Daśaratha. And thus the Aśvamedha yajña has been complete.

In the post-Vedic era, the Asvamedha yajña(s) as described in Rāmayaṇa and Mahābhārta, have been simplified than the Aśvamedha(s) performed in the age of Veda-Brāhmaṇa. The vast procedure and rituals of the yajña has been descibed in larger details, in the Brāhmaṇa-texts. Aitareya Brāhmaṇ has mentioned the names– names that we consider as historical– kings who had performed Aśvamedha yajña, and along with them, the mnames of the ṛtvik(s) have also been given. There is a gravity of repeation in this name-mentioning, as if the grandness of AAśvamedha yajñ would be understood by one or two examples. Aitareya Brāhmaṇa calls this yajña Aindra Mahābhiṣka– that is, this yajña has given a motal king the respect of attaining a position like Indra. Aitareya says, the kṣatriya who is corronated by Aindra Mahābhiṣka, attains all kinds of victories after the Abhiṣeka, know all the abodes, achieves all kinds of absolute greatness. He become the svayambhū svarāṭ in this world, and attains immortality in the heavenly abode–
sa etena aindreṇa mahābhiṣekāṇābhiṣiktaḥ kṣatriyaḥ sarvā jitījayati sarvāllokān vindati sarveṣāṃ rājñāṃ śraiṭhamatiṣṭṭhāṃ paramatāṃ gacchati…asminlloke svayambhūḥ svarāḍ amṛtomuṣmin svarge loke sarvān kāmanāptvā amṛtaḥ sambhavati.

Aitareya Brāhmaṇa has given a list of the famous kings who performed Aśvamedha yajña– Kāvaṣeya (son of Kavaṣa) sage Tura completed the Aindra mahābhiṣka of Pārīkṣita Janamejaya. Janamejaya travelled acorss the world, won it, and then performed the yajña. Such a legend is there– in some region called Āsandīvat, Janamejaya bound a paddy-consuming horse, with a white mark on its forehead, and a garland of yellow flowers around its neck– for the gods.

The significance of mentioning this legend lies in the idea that Aitareya Brāhmaṇa is referring to legend more ancient that itself.

While describing the second famous king̍s Aśvamedha yajña, Aitareya Brāhmaṇa says in the same manner– Bhārgava Cyavana completed the Aindra mahābhiṣeka of Śaryāti od the lineage of Manu. Śāryāta Mānava travelled across the entire worlsd, own it, and performed the Aśvamedha yajña–
etena ha vā aindreṇ mahābhiṣekeṇa cyavano bhāggavaḥ.
śāryātaṃ mānavaṃabhiṣiṣeca, tasmād u śāryāto maānavaḥ samantaṃ pṛthivīṃ jayan parīyāya, aśena ca medhyena ije…

And in the same kanguage Aitaryes further informs– Somaśuṣmā Vājaratnāyana performed the Aindra mahābhiṣka of Sātrājita Śatānīka. Sage Parvata and sage Nārada performed the Aindra mahābhiṣka of Āmvāṣṭhya and Yudhāṃśrauṣṭhi Augrasenya, and after that they performed Aśvamedha yajña. Sage Prajāpai Kaśyapa performed the Aindra Mahābhiṣka of Viśvakarmā bhauvana, who performed Aśvamedha. Vaśiṣṭha performed the abhiṣka of Sudāsa Paijavana, who performed Aśvamedha. And King Marutta, whose reference comes in Mahābhārata in connection with Yudhiṣṭhira̍s Aśvamedha, had also been mentioned in Aitaryea, much earlier than the composition of Mahābhārata– Saṃvarta Āṅgirasa performed the Aindra Mahābhiṣeka of Āvikṣita Marutta, so that he was able to perform Aśvamedha yajña.

Aitareya Brāhmaṇā describes in details the Aśvamedha yajña of Aṅga, son of Virocana. Udamaya Ātreya was the priest. Here we have a special information– after accepting honorarium and dakṣiṇa from Vairocani Aṅga, the priest Udamaya Ātreya himself donāed away, but in performing the donation, he was so exhausted that he asked his servants to perform it on his behalf, and they also got tired of it.

There is a special mention of the Aśvamedha performed by Bharata, son of Duṣyanta, and his priest was Māmateya Dīrghatamā. Bharata bound seventy eight horses on the bank of Yamunā, and fifty five horses– suitable for the yajñ, in a place called Vṛtaghna, on the bank of Gaṅgā. Using his superior skill and power, Bharata thwarted the plans of his antagonist-kings. Remembering the last legend of Bharata, Aitareya says– a man cannot touch the sky with his hand, but the great deeds like Aśvamedha which Bharata performed, were also not possible for any other man–
mahākarma bharatya na pūrve nāpare janāḥ
divaṃ martya iva hastābhyāṃ nodāpuḥ paca mānavāḥ.

In Mahābhārata, it is said that sage Kaṇva, the foster-father of Bharata̍s mother Śakuntalā, was the priest of his Aśvamedha. Under the priesthood of Kaṇva, Bharata performed the Aśvamedha called Govitata. Further, he performed one hundred Aśvamedha yajñ(s) on the bank of Yaminā, three hundred on the bank of Sarasvatī, and four hundred on the bank of Gaṅgā– and Kaṇva was the priest in all these yajña(s)–
śrīmān govitataṃnāma vājimedhamavāpasaḥ
yasmin sahasaṃ padmānāṃ kavāyaya bharato dadau.
triśataiśca sarasvatyāṃ gaṅgāmanu catuḥ śataiḥ.

We have uttered several matters about Aśvamedha, but Śuklayajurvedīya Vājasaneyī Saṃhitā mentions much of the Vedic rituals required for this yajña. The rest is in the Brāhmaṇa texts. In Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, Aśvamedha yajña is called the yajña of a kṣatriya, because only the most powerful kings. Small or less powerful kings could not perform this, if they try, their own kingdoms will go to the hand of enemies. Śatapatha says, Aśvamedha and the state are the same– rāṣṭraṃ vā aśvamedhaḥ. So a powerful king, ruler of a state, can perform the Aśvamedha. And if a king, who is not so powerful, wishes to perform the Aśvamedha and his horse falls into the hand of enemies, then his yajña is broken, and he falls under a sin–
yo valo̍śvamedhena yajate yadi amitrā aśvaṃ
vinderan yajño̍sya vicchidyeta pāpīyān syāt…

From this statement of Śatapatha Brahmaṇa, it becomes clear that its initial purpose was political, later the divine glory of this yajña transformed it into a major Śrauta yajña. Aśvamedha is a Somayāga of the Ahīna type, with the ceremony of three sutyādivasa. Though by nature it is a Somayāga, yet because of the importance of the horse as the sacrificial animal, it is known as Aśvamedha. According to Śruti and Smṛti, there is no other deed as greater than Aśvamedha, because it yields all desirable results, and it is redeeming such grave sins like Brahmahatyā. This yajña begins on the Aṣṭamī or Navamī tithi of the month of Phālguna, and the performer of the yajña, at first perfoms animal sacrifice dedicated to God Prajāpati and invites the ṛtvik(s) to take the oath (sankalpa) for Aśvamedhayāga.

During the ritual bath after the end of Aśvamedha (avabhṛtha), jumvakāhuti was offered– upon the head of a red-eyed person, and it was believed that, by performing this ritual, the king becomes free of his bondage to Varuṇa.

We are citing a brief description of Aśvamedha, from the writing of R.D. Karmakar —

“There are several features of the Aśvamedha which contribute to the importance of the sacrifice– Thus
1) The ssacrifice (which commences on the 8th day of the bright fort-night of the month of Phālguna, March) lasts for one year and twenty seven days.
2) Four thousand cows and four thousand gold coins are given to the four priests on the first day.
3) The Sāvitreṣṭi is performed every day for full one year, till the return of the horse.
4) The horse id escorted by 100 Rājaputras, 100 Kṣatriyaputras, 100 Sūtagrāmaṇiputras and one hundred Kṣattṛputras, all armed with different weapons, during the year the horse is allowed to wander at will.
5) Singing and playing upon the lute by two Brāhmaṇas(who glorify the performance of sacrifices and the munificent dakṣiā given over) by day, and by two Kṣtriyas (who glorify the valorous deeds of kings) by night, goes on throughout the year.
6) Similarly the cycle of discourses (or stories) ̍pariplavyākhyāna)– lasting for ten days, is continued throughout the year, that is, there are in all thirty-six cycles (each lasting for ten days) during the Aśvamedha sacrifice. This ̍pariplavyākhyāna̍ is one of the unique features of the Aśvamedha.
7) After the successful return of the horse, the sacrifice goes on for twenty-seven more days (the first twelve days are concerned with dīkṣākarma, the next twelve days with and the last three days, with Somayajña.
8) On the 25th day aftee the return of the horse, the Agniṣṭoma is performed, when there are 21 yupas, and twenty two viotims are offered.
9) The 26th is the most important day– ̍Der Tag̍ of the sacrifice, for it is on that day that the horse is killed.

10) The king riding on a chariot yoked with four horses (of which the Horse-victim is one), enters a pond to the east, till the horses get wet. The three queens, Mahiṣī, Vāvātā and Parivṛktā, annoint the horse on its return with ghee, and 109 pearls are woven by them in its main and hair of the tail.

As many as 260 (forest animals) and 337 domesticated ones (including the 12 paryaṅga victims) are offered as victims; the 260 forest animals are however not actually killed. The horse is then made to lie upon a gold sheet laid on sacrificial grass and covered over with a piece of cloth, and then it is killed.

The queens cleanse the face of the horse and the chief queen ceremoniously lies down near the dead horse.

It will thus be seen that the pariplavyākhyāna and the upasaṃveśana of the queen are the two unique features of the horse sacrifice, the other features being found in the case of other sacrifices, though not on such a grand scale.